Maps
Mapped: What Did the World Look Like in the Last Ice Age?
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What Did the World Look Like in the Last Ice Age?
What did the world look like during the last ice age? Was it all endless glaciers and frozen ice? The answer is a partial yes—with some interesting caveats.
The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), colloquially called the last ice age, was a period in Earth’s history that occurred roughly 26,000 to 19,000 years ago.
This map by cartographer Perrin Remonté offers a snapshot of the Earth from that time, using data of past sea levels and glaciers from research published in 2009, 2014, and 2021, alongside modern-day topographical data.
Let’s dive into the differences between the two Earths below.
The Last Ice Age: Low Seas, Exposed Landmasses
During an ice age, sea levels fall as ocean water that evaporates is stored on land on a large scale (ice sheets, ice caps, glaciers) instead of returning to the ocean.
Earth's Ice Cover | 20,000 Years Ago | Today |
---|---|---|
Surface | 8% | 3% |
Land | 25% | 11% |
At the time of the LGM, the climate was cold and dry with temperatures that were 6 °C (11 °F) lower on average. Water levels in the ocean were more than 400 feet below what they are now, exposing large areas of the continental shelf.
In the map above, these areas are represented as the gray, dry land most noticeable in a few big patches in Southeast Asia and between Russia and Alaska. Here are a few examples of regions of dry land from 20,000 years ago that are now under water:
- A “lost continent” called Sundaland, a southeastern extension of Asia which forms the island regions of Indonesia today. Some scholars see a connection with this location and the mythical site of Atlantis, though there are many other theories.
- The Bering land bridge, now a strait, connecting Asia and North America. It is central to the theory explaining how ancient humans crossed between the two continents.
- Another land bridge connected the island of Great Britain with the rest of continental Europe. The island of Ireland is in turn connected to Great Britain by a giant ice sheet.
- In Japan, the low water level made the Sea of Japan a lake, and a land bridge connected the region to the Asian mainland. The Yellow Sea—famous as a modern-day fishing location—was completely dry.
The cold temperatures also caused the polar parts of continents to be covered by massive ice sheets, with glaciers forming in mountainous areas.
Flora and Fauna in the Last Ice Age
The dry climate during the last ice age brought about the expansion of deserts and the disappearance of rivers, but some areas saw increased precipitation from falling temperatures.
Most of Canada and Northern Europe was covered with large ice sheets. The U.S. was a mix of ice sheets, alpine deserts, snow forests, semi-arid scrubland and temperate grasslands. Areas that are deserts today—like the Mojave—were filled with lakes. The Great Salt Lake in Utah is a remnant from this time.
Africa had a mix of grasslands in its southern half and deserts in the north—the Sahara Desert existed then as well—and Asia was a mix of tropical deserts in the west, alpine deserts in China, and grasslands in the Indian subcontinent.
Several large animals like the woolly mammoth, the mastodon, the giant beaver, and the saber-toothed tiger roamed the world in extremely harsh conditions, but sadly all are extinct today.
However, not all megafauna from the LGM disappeared forever; many species are still alive, including the Bactrian camel, the tapir, the musk ox, and the white rhinoceros—though the latter is now an endangered species.
Will There Be Another Ice Age?
In a technical sense, we’re still in an “ice age” called the Quaternary Glaciation, which began about 2.6 million years ago. That’s because a permanent ice sheet has existed for the entire time, the Antarctic, which makes geologists call this entire period an ice age.
We are currently in a relatively warmer part of that ice age, described as an interglacial period, which began 11,700 years ago. This geological epoch is known as the Holocene.
Over billions of years, the Earth has experienced numerous glacial and interglacial periods and has had five major ice ages:
Major Ice Ages | Name | Time Period (Years Ago) |
---|---|---|
1 | Huronian Glaciation | 2.4 billion - 2.1 billion |
2 | Cryogenian Glaciation | 720 million - 635 million |
3 | Andean-Saharan Glaciation | 450 million - 420 million |
4 | Late Paleozoic ice age | 335 million - 260 million |
5 | Quaternary Glaciation | 2.6 million - present |
It is predicted that temperatures will fall again in a few thousand years, leading to expansion of ice sheets. However there are a dizzying array of factors that are still not understood well enough to say comprehensively what causes (or ends) ice ages.
A popular explanation says the degree of the Earth’s axial tilt, its wobble, and its orbital shape, are the main factors heralding the start and end of this phenomenon.
The variations in all three lead to a change in how much prolonged sunlight parts of the world receive, which in turn can cause the creation or melting of ice sheets. But these take thousands of years to coincide and cause a significant change in climate.
Furthermore, current industrial activities have warmed the climate considerably and may in fact delay the next ice age by 50,000-100,000 years.
This article was published as a part of Visual Capitalist's Creator Program, which features data-driven visuals from some of our favorite Creators around the world.
Crime
Mapped: The Safest Cities in the U.S.
How safe is small town America? This map reveals the safest cities in the U.S. in terms of the total crime rate per every 1,000 residents.
Mapped: The Safest Cities in America
The phrase “small town America” often conjures up images of white picket fences, well-trimmed lawns, and big houses. But how safe is modern-day suburbia in America?
Some of the smallest places in the country can actually be among the most dangerous. Take for example Bessemer, Alabama, with a population of around 26,000 and a violent crime rate of 33.1 per every 1,000 residents.
That said, there are many small cities that are true havens for families across the United States. This map showcases the safest cities in the U.S., using FBI data and Census Bureau populations compiled by NeighborhoodScout in 2023.
Note: The source only considered cities with a population of 25,000 or higher. This report is based on total index crimes reported in each city, which includes arson, burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, murder, rape, armed robbery, and aggravated assault.
Top 100 Safest Cities in the U.S.
40% of the cities in the ranking are located in Northeastern states, which are typically rated the “safest” based on FBI data.
Here’s a closer look at the full list:
Rank | City | State | Total Crime Rate(per 1,000 residents) | Chance of Beinga Victim |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Ridgefield | Connecticut | 1.9 | 1 in 510 |
2 | Franklin | Massachusetts | 2.9 | 1 in 344 |
3 | Lake in the Hills | Illinois | 3.1 | 1 in 321 |
4 | Marshfield | Massachusetts | 3.3 | 1 in 300 |
5 | Arlington | Massachusetts | 3.4 | 1 in 292 |
6 | Fulshear | Texas | 3.6 | 1 in 276 |
7 | Zionsville | Indiana | 3.6 | 1 in 275 |
8 | Lexington | Massachusetts | 3.7 | 1 in 270 |
9 | Muskego | Wisconsin | 3.8 | 1 in 265 |
10 | Rexburg | Idaho | 3.9 | 1 in 253 |
11 | Independence | Kentucky | 3.9 | 1 in 253 |
12 | Oswego | Illinois | 4.1 | 1 in 238 |
13 | Milton | Massachusetts | 4.2 | 1 in 233 |
14 | Needham | Massachusetts | 4.2 | 1 in 233 |
15 | White Lake | Michigan | 4.2 | 1 in 233 |
16 | Avon Lake | Ohio | 4.3 | 1 in 232 |
17 | Madison | Mississippi | 4.5 | 1 in 221 |
18 | Wakefield | Massachusetts | 4.5 | 1 in 218 |
19 | Windsor | Colorado | 4.5 | 1 in 218 |
20 | South Kingstown | Rhode Island | 4.7 | 1 in 212 |
21 | Colleyville | Texas | 4.8 | 1 in 206 |
22 | West Bloomfield | Michigan | 4.9 | 1 in 204 |
23 | Johns Creek | Georgia | 4.9 | 1 in 202 |
24 | Billerica | Massachusetts | 5.1 | 1 in 195 |
25 | Mason | Ohio | 5.1 | 1 in 192 |
26 | Reading | Massachusetts | 5.1 | 1 in 192 |
27 | North Andover | Massachusetts | 5.2 | 1 in 190 |
28 | Wellesley | Massachusetts | 5.2 | 1 in 189 |
29 | Mundelein | Illinois | 5.3 | 1 in 187 |
30 | Brandon | Mississippi | 5.3 | 1 in 186 |
31 | Cumberland | Rhode Island | 5.4 | 1 in 184 |
32 | Andover | Massachusetts | 5.4 | 1 in 182 |
33 | Edwardsville | Illinois | 5.5 | 1 in 178 |
34 | Little Elm | Texas | 5.6 | 1 in 176 |
35 | Merrimack | New Hampshire | 5.7 | 1 in 172 |
36 | Waltham | Massachusetts | 5.8 | 1 in 169 |
37 | Wylie | Texas | 5.9 | 1 in 169 |
38 | Commerce Township | Michigan | 5.9 | 1 in 169 |
39 | Milton | Georgia | 5.9 | 1 in 167 |
40 | Melrose | Massachusetts | 6.0 | 1 in 164 |
41 | Ballwin | Missouri | 6.1 | 1 in 162 |
42 | North Kingstown | Rhode Island | 6.1 | 1 in 162 |
43 | Beverly | Massachusetts | 6.2 | 1 in 161 |
44 | Rochester Hills | Michigan | 6.2 | 1 in 160 |
45 | Keller | Texas | 6.3 | 1 in 158 |
46 | Shrewsbury | Massachusetts | 6.4 | 1 in 156 |
47 | Dracut | Massachusetts | 6.4 | 1 in 155 |
48 | Prosper | Texas | 6.4 | 1 in 155 |
49 | Newton | Massachusetts | 6.5 | 1 in 152 |
50 | Friendswood | Texas | 6.5 | 1 in 152 |
51 | McHenry | Illinois | 6.5 | 1 in 152 |
52 | Fort Mill | South Carolina | 6.6 | 1 in 151 |
53 | Wallingford | Connecticut | 6.8 | 1 in 146 |
54 | Caledonia | Wisconsin | 6.9 | 1 in 144 |
55 | Belmont | Massachusetts | 6.9 | 1 in 144 |
56 | De Pere | Wisconsin | 6.9 | 1 in 143 |
57 | Flower Mound | Texas | 7.0 | 1 in 142 |
58 | Easton | Massachusetts | 7.0 | 1 in 141 |
59 | Highland Park | Illinois | 7.0 | 1 in 141 |
60 | Carmel | Indiana | 7.2 | 1 in 138 |
61 | Sachse | Texas | 7.2 | 1 in 138 |
62 | Algonquin | Illinois | 7.2 | 1 in 137 |
63 | Hendersonville | Tennessee | 7.2 | 1 in 137 |
64 | San Luis | Arizona | 7.3 | 1 in 136 |
65 | Fishers | Indiana | 7.3 | 1 in 135 |
66 | Perrysburg | Ohio | 7.4 | 1 in 135 |
67 | Lake Stevens | Washington | 7.4 | 1 in 134 |
68 | Cheshire | Connecticut | 7.4 | 1 in 134 |
69 | Milford | Massachusetts | 7.5 | 1 in 132 |
70 | Saratoga Springs | Utah | 7.5 | 1 in 132 |
71 | Bella Vista | Arkansas | 7.5 | 1 in 132 |
72 | Princeton | New Jersey | 7.5 | 1 in 131 |
73 | Bluffton | South Carolina | 7.6 | 1 in 130 |
74 | Novi | Michigan | 7.6 | 1 in 130 |
75 | Chelmsford | Massachusetts | 7.6 | 1 in 130 |
76 | Amherst | Massachusetts | 7.7 | 1 in 129 |
77 | Rosemount | Minnesota | 7.7 | 1 in 129 |
78 | Gloucester | Massachusetts | 7.7 | 1 in 129 |
79 | Syracuse | Utah | 7.8 | 1 in 127 |
80 | Waukee | Iowa | 7.8 | 1 in 126 |
81 | Mequon | Wisconsin | 7.9 | 1 in 126 |
82 | Westfield | Indiana | 7.9 | 1 in 126 |
83 | Spring Hill | Tennessee | 7.9 | 1 in 126 |
84 | Upper Arlington | Ohio | 7.9 | 1 in 126 |
85 | Rahway | New Jersey | 7.9 | 1 in 125 |
86 | Montclair | New Jersey | 7.9 | 1 in 125 |
87 | Greenwich | Connecticut | 8.0 | 1 in 125 |
88 | Hutto | Texas | 8.0 | 1 in 124 |
89 | Vestavia Hills | Alabama | 8.0 | 1 in 123 |
90 | Brownsburg | Indiana | 8.1 | 1 in 123 |
91 | Wilmette | Illinois | 8.1 | 1 in 123 |
92 | New Milford | Connecticut | 8.1 | 1 in 122 |
93 | Hilliard | Ohio | 8.2 | 1 in 120 |
94 | Royal Oak | Michigan | 8.2 | 1 in 120 |
95 | Derry | New Hampshire | 8.3 | 1 in 121 |
96 | Dublin | Ohio | 8.3 | 1 in 120 |
97 | West Warwick | Rhode Island | 8.5 | 1 in 116 |
98 | Watertown | Massachusetts | 8.5 | 1 in 116 |
99 | Walpole | Massachusetts | 8.6 | 1 in 115 |
100 | Kaysville | Utah | 8.6 | 1 in 115 |
One quarter of the safest cities are located in Massachusetts, with the vast majority clustered around Boston.
The median population of the cities and towns in the top 100 is just 32,000, and few widely-recognized cities make the list. Carmel, Indiana (#60) is the only city with a population above 100,000 to make the rankings. This would seem to follow the logic that bigger cities are more dangerous, but our map covering the most dangerous cities in America shows that many small cities were just as dangerous, and some even more.
Regardless, small towns can truly be idyllic. For example, a person’s chance of falling victim to crime in Ridgefield, Connecticut, the safest ranked city in the U.S., is just 1-in-510. That’s an overall rate of fewer than two incidents of crime per every 1,000 residents.
One surprising observation from the data is that many of the safest U.S. cities are in very close proximity to some of the most dangerous.
One example that illustrates this is Detroit, which ranks as the sixth most dangerous city in America. Despite this, as shown on the map above, there are four communities nearby that have some of the lowest crime rates in America.
In other words, America’s metro areas contain much contrast, and these insights provide valuable information for individuals and families seeking secure places to live across the country.
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